Returning to the sources that discuss the issue of whether the Prophet knew how to read and write, we find that opinions are divided into three:
1. The belief that the Prophet, peace be upon him, never knew how to read or write, neither before nor after receiving the prophethood, represents the majority view. Those who hold this opinion base it on the Quranic verse in Surah Al-Ankabut and the various verses and Hadiths that describe the Prophet as “Ummi” (unlettered) or refer to the community as “unlettered.”
2- The belief that the Prophet, peace be upon him, began his life as unlettered until the time of his prophethood, and afterwards, he learned to write. Some scholars, including al-Baji (may Allah have mercy upon him), held this view. Ibn Hajar mentioned, “He (al-Baji) firmly adhered to the apparent meaning of this narration and claimed that the Prophet, peace be upon him, wrote with his hand after not knowing how to write. However, scholars in Andalusia of his time strongly criticized him and accused him of heresy… Ibn Dahyah mentioned that a group of scholars agreed with al-Baji on this matter, including his teacher Abu Zar al-Harawi and Abu al-Fath al-Naysaburi, along with others from the scholars of Ifriqiya.” Shia scholars also share this view. They based their argument on certain authentic narrations and some weak reports, interpreting the authentic ones in a metaphorical sense, meaning that the Prophet, peace be upon him, encouraged writing.
3- The belief that the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was unlettered, meaning he did not read or write, except on certain occasions through miraculous intervention. Ibn Hajar stated, “It is possible that his hand was guided to write at those moments, even though he did not possess the skill, and what was written would correspond to what was intended, thus making it another miracle at that specific time. This does not negate his status as unlettered. Abu Ja’far al-Samnani, one of the scholars of Usul al-Din (the principles of faith) among the Ash’aris, and Ibn al-Jawzi followed this perspective.” Ibn Hajar also responded to the statement made by Al-Sahili, who had countered the previous argument by saying, “Al-Sahili said: Miracles cannot contradict each other. The truth is that the meaning of ‘so he wrote’ implies that an order was given to write, and that’s the end of it. In the claim that writing his noble name in this manner alone would contradict the miracle and establish that he was not unlettered – upon reflection.”
What I find more likely is that the Prophet, peace be upon him, read and wrote before his death, based on the following reasons:
1. That the verse in Surah Al-Ankabut negated reading and writing specifically before the Quran but did not negate it entirely.
The phrase ‘from before it’ suggests that the ruling after it differs for those who affirm the opposite meaning. Otherwise, there would be no benefit in specifying it. So, the verse does not say, ‘You did not know, and it was not for you.’
2. That the previous indications in the Hadiths suggest that the Prophet physically performed the act with his hand on certain occasions. At the very least, it can be said that these instances occurred as miracles for the greatest Prophet.
3. It is not reasonable for the Prophet to command the people of Islam, including everyone, to seek knowledge, read, and write, while he himself refrained from doing so.
Just as the Prophet, peace be upon him, is the epitome of virtues and free from imperfections, it is believed that when the need for refraining from reading and writing had passed, he engaged in reading and writing.
4. Those who advocate for the absolute illiteracy of the Prophet do so to dispel any misconception that he might have been influenced by Jewish and Christian traditions.
And I ask: Where is this heritage from which the Prophet could have been influenced during this period? The majority of people’s knowledge in the Arabian Peninsula was based on oral tradition. We did not have books of Jewish or Christian teachings from that time period. Moreover, most of the poetry, prose, and eloquence of the Arabs was not in written form either.
So, where would this influence have come from?
People in that era relied on oral transmission from one generation to the next. If oral transmission was the means of communication, then would it have been necessary for the Prophet, given his esteemed position, to be deaf in order to dispel any suspicion of receiving information?
It is indeed a matter that the disbelievers of Mecca spread, and every detractor echoed it: ‘And We certainly know that they say, ‘It is only a human being who teaches him.”’ (An-Nahl, 16:103)
Hence, the effort to dispel the suspicion of receiving revelation does not solely rely on the issue of illiteracy, even though the Quran has indirectly addressed it.
And Allah knows best. Fatwa by Dr. Khālid Naṣr