Combining prayers means that the worshipper performs two obligatory prayers together within the time frame of one of them, either during the day or night, whether the prayers are performed in full or shortened, and whether the person is traveling or at home.

The times when combining prayers is allowed are Ẓuhr with ῾Aṣr, either by performing both during Ẓuhr’s time or delaying Ẓuhr until ῾Aṣr’s time, and Maghrib with ῾Ishā᾽, either by performing both during Maghrib’s time or delaying Maghrib until ῾Ishā᾽’s time.

There are specific rulings on combining prayers, which can be detailed as follows:

1. Agreed-Upon Combining:
   • This refers to combining Ẓuhr and ῾Aṣr during the time of Ẓuhr at ῾Arafāt, and Maghrib and ῾Ishā᾽ during the time of ῾Ishā᾽ at Muzdalifah, as practiced by the Prophet (peace be upon him) during his pilgrimage, according to unanimous reports.
2. Combining During Travel (Other than at ῾Arafāt and Muzdalifah):
   • Scholars have differed on its permissibility:
     1. The majority of scholars, including the Mālikīs, Shāfi῾īs, and Ḥanbalīs, allow combining during travel, whether the prayers are shortened or performed in full. This is also the view of many companions and early scholars.
     2. The Ḥanafī scholars do not permit combining during travel. The only scenario they allow is delaying the first prayer to the end of its time and performing the second prayer at the beginning of its time, which is considered a form of combining in appearance, but not in essence. This is known as “virtual combining” in the Ḥanafī school.
   • Some Mālikīs differentiate between combining during the journey itself and during a stop, allowing it during the journey but not during a stop.
3. Combining Due to Rain (or similar conditions like snow, strong winds, or mud):
   • The Shāfi῾īs and Ḥanbalīs allow combining prayers in such cases, whether it is Ẓuhr with ῾Aṣr or Maghrib with ῾Ishā᾽, based on the difficulty caused by such conditions.
   • The Mālikīs permit combining Ẓuhr and ῾Aṣr but not Maghrib and ῾Ishā᾽ in case of rain, as there is less need to go out at night.
   • The Ḥanafīs do not permit combining except in appearance as previously explained.
   • It should be noted that combining due to such conditions applies to those praying in a congregation at the mosque, not to those praying at home or at work, as they do not face the hardship of leaving their place.
4. Combining Due to ᾽Istiḥāḍah or for Nursing Mothers:
   • ᾽Istiḥāḍah is the non-menstrual bleeding:
     1. The majority of scholars believe that women experiencing ᾽Istiḥāḍah should pray each prayer at its designated time.
     2. Some Ḥanbalīs, including Ibn Taymiyyah and Al-Shawkānī, permit combining prayers in the case of ᾽Istiḥāḍah, referencing a ḥadīth narrated by Al-Tirmidhī and others from Ḥamnah bint Jaḥsh (may Allāh be pleased with her) that she sought the Prophet (peace be upon him)’s opinion regarding ᾽Istiḥāḍah. He said: “… But if you are strong enough to delay the Ẓuhr prayer and advance the ῾Aṣr prayer so that you can perform Ghusl and combine the two prayers, the do so.”
   • Nursing mothers who face hardship due to frequent contamination from their babies may be given the same concession.
5. Combining Due to Fear:
   • Fear can refer to a visible threat like a fugitive or a disguised person, or a perceived threat like a guard duty:
     1. The majority of scholars, including the Ḥanafīs, some Mālikīs, and Shāfi῾īs, do not allow combining prayers due to fear, as there is specific prayer for fear according to one’s situation. Allāh Almighty said: “Maintain with care the [obligatory] prayers and [in particular] the middle [i.e., ῾Aṣr] prayer and stand before Allāh, devoutly obedient. And if you fear [an enemy, then pray] on foot or riding. But when you are secure, then remember Allāh [in prayer], as He has taught you that which you did not [previously] know.” [Al-Baqarah: 238-239]. The phrase “on foot or riding” means you should observe prayer in whatever condition you are experiencing even if you are walking or riding, performing the actions or using gestures.

Therefore, there is no need for combining prayers.

5. The Ḥanbalīs, some Mālikīs, and some Shāfi῾īs, including Ibn Taymiyyah, permit combining due to fear, citing the hadith of Ibn Abbas which suggests fear as a valid reason for combining prayers.
6. Combining Without a Specific Reason or to Avoid Potential Hardship:
   • Examples include a student studying for an exam, someone unable to stay awake late, a doctor busy with patients, etc.:
     1. The majority of jurists do not permit combining prayers in cases other than the ones based on clear evidence or a severe hardship, as Allāh Almighty says: “and [Allāh] has not placed upon you in the religion any hardship.” [Al-Ḥajj: 78]. To change the appointed times of prayer, there must be a valid reason. Allāh Almighty says: “Indeed, performing prayers is a duty on the believers at the appointed times.” [Al-Nisā᾽: 103]. Combination of prayers opposes the essence of setting specific times for prayers. Therefore, it requires a valid reason.
     2. Some Ḥanbalīs, including Ibn Taymiyyah, and a group of scholars and traditionalists allow combining prayers in such cases. Al-Nawawī reported in his commentary on Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim: “A group of scholars held the permissibility of combining prayers in residence due under dire needs only for those who do not presume it as a habit. It is the same opinion held by Ibn Sīrīn and ᾽Ashhab, one of Mālik’s students. It was also reported by Al-Khaṭṭābī from Al-Qaffāl and by Al-Shāshī al-Kabīr, one of Al-Shāfi῾ī’s students, from Abī ᾽Isḥāq al-Marūzī; both of them from a group of traditionalists. It is also the chosen opinion by Ibn al-Mundhir.” This group cited the ḥadīth of Ibn ῾Abbās who said: “The Messenger of Allāh (peace be upon him) combined the noon (Ẓuhr) and afternoon (῾Aṣr) prayers, and the sunset (Maghrib) and night (῾Ishā᾽) prayers at Medina without any danger and rain.” Ibn ῾Abbās was asked: What did he intend by it? He replied: “He intended that his community might not fall into hardship.” They explained that hardship is general and subject to personal estimate.
   • This opinion applies to various situations like:
     1. A student preparing for an exam.
     2. A researcher writing a paper and not wanting to interrupt their thoughts.
     3. A doctor treating their patients and performing long surgeries.
     4. A worker who cannot leave their machine unattended.
     5. A woman who is busy with her housework, chores and cooking.
     6. A guard or a police officer who should keep an alert eye.
     7. An elderly man or woman who face difficulty moving for frequent ablutions and prayers.
     8. A person suffering from uncontrolled leakage of urine.
     9. A driver on a long journey, whether driving for himself or moving others, be them people or products.
     10. Anyone who would face hardship waiting for the upcoming prayer.

In my view, this permissibility should be limited to a personal fatwā. The person who faces these hardships should see seek a fatwā for their scenario from a scholar and not depend on their personal reasoning. The absolute permissibility would lead to ignoring the appointed times for prayers based on personal considerations.

After all, Allāh knows best.

Fatwā issued by Dr. Khālid Naṣr